February 2023 | BIPS Research Grant

India-Iran-Iraq: Akhbārī and Uṣūlī Scholars in Persianate Context

My current research focuses on Shi’ism in the early 19^th century. During this time, Shi’i scholars from Iran, India and Iraq were involved in a bitter intellectual battle known as the Akhbari-Usuli conflict.  Akhbaris had been dominant since the 17^th century, and believed that all religious rules should be traced back to the “statements” (akhbar) of the Imams. Usulis were in the ascendency and argued that the sources of law (usul) were both revelation and reason as equal partners. In their dispute there were not only many public debates and arguments, but also each scholarly trend wrote extensive refutations of their opponents. These were written in Arabic and Persian, and largely remain in manuscript form. My BIPS research project involved searching for and analysing these refutations. There are, of course many manuscript libraries in Iran – and I have used them over many years – but I have never consulted the works in the Indian collections. I knew from catalogues that there were many refutations by Akhbaris and Usulis to be found there, but had never had the opportunity to visit and consult them. This is what the BIPS project award enabled me to do.

There is relevant material to be found across India and Pakistan, but I consulted manuscript catalogues (such as they were) and came to the conclusion that there were three libraries in Hyderabad, two in Lucknow and one in Mumbai which would be most useful. I had a few local contacts (and contacts of contacts) in the three cities, and asked them to lay the ground with the library directors or cataloguists. They contacted them and made initial enquiries, and everything seemed set for my 14 day trip (5 nights Hyderabad, 5 nights Lucknow, 3 nights Mumbai, 1 night Hyderabad before departure).

I arrived first in Hyderabad for the initial visits, but the usual challenges appeared immediately: some libraries were inexplicably closed; the librarians were away; the special collections were unavailable to members of the public; permission was needed from a director or a similar person, and they were away etc etc. Work like this is the art of the possible, so I worked out what I could do and when over the time in Hyderabad. I managed to get excellent access at the Oriental Manuscripts Library on the Osmaniyya University campus.

Osmaniya University Oriental Manuscripts Library, Hyderabad (with Rob Gleave in front)

The facilities were basic, but the enthusiasm for a foreign visitor more than compensated for this. There is no proper catalogue of the manuscripts here – just a handlist (and by this, I mean a list written by hand in the early 20^th century). But the material was made available without fuss and the staff were marvellous. I had a similar experience at the Library of the Sallar Jung Museum – this is a huge complex, of which the library is only one part, but here, the list (also hand written) is a little more detailed than at the Oriental Manuscripts Library. The facilities were more developed and the librarian was a Persian speaker who had studied in Iran – and was very well-informed. I saw some of the main texts and moved on. The final library was more challenging – and I was not successful.  The manuscripts had been transported to another location, no one seemed to know where they were, and despite my best efforts, I got no joy. I shall not name the library out of politeness – but it was a little frustrating to say the least.

I moved on to Lucknow – here my local contact was well-connected with the local Shiite scholars and researchers. My first library here was the Mumtaz al-Ulama Library under the directorship of Sayyid Sayf Abbas Naqvi.

Shibli Numan Library, Lucknow

Sayyid Sayf had studied in Qum, and was also a Persian and Arabic speaker. He very kindly allowed me to use the library, bringing texts for me to consult. No copying facilities, but I could spend a good long time consulting the manuscripts. Perhaps, on another occasion, I may be allowed to make copies rather then extensive notes. I also got to visit the Mumtaz al-Ulama Husayniyya, where a seminar was being held and which I could attend. The other library in Lucknow was also a fail, with similar issues to the Hyderabad library  – again, I shall not name them…

The final destination was Mumbai, and specifically the library of the Asiatic Society of Mumbai. This has a small collection of manuscripts, but well-catalogued by A. Fyzee in 1927. My work here involved three manuscripts – two of which I got access to (the other could not be located in the khizanah). The wonderful building itself is generally in need of some attention.  It did take 3 attempts as the critical person seemed to be there on a sporadic basis, but I got there in the end.

If you aim to do manuscript research in India, here are a few lessons I learned:

1. Get a local contact who can ring the library before you go and check it is available – it does not always work, but when it does, getting access is a breeze.
2. Be prepared to spend a lot of time waiting, talking and drinking tea with librarians. They all wanted to know your life story.
3. If you can, get the numbers of manuscripts you want to view in advance – it not only speeds up the process, but critically the librarian will know you have done your homework and that you came a long way for this specific library.
4. Be prepared for unexplained obstacles and delays – sometimes, even your fixer cannot fix an issue since there is an inbuilt set of barriers in the library itself.

In sum, then, a wonderful trip – I learned so much from my conversations and from the manuscript viewings. I returned full of possibilities with new areas of research. The material I collected has forced me to another chapter to my book on the Akhbari-Usuli dispute in India. What I really found out was that I need to return – there is so much in Persian, Arabic and Urdu which I need to study. I aim to share the findings at a future BIPS workshop – and I must thank BIPS for making the trip possible in the first place.

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Robert Gleave is Professor of Arabic Studies in the Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies at the University of Exeter.